History of Pomerania

History of Pomerania
Coat of arms of Pomerania
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Early history
Early Middle Ages
High Middle Ages
Late Middle Ages
Early Modern Age
1806–1933
1933–1945
1945–present
Pomerania Portal

The history of Pomerania dates back more than 10,000 years. Settlement in the area started by the end of the Vistula Glacial Stage, about 13,000 years ago.[1] Archeological traces have been found of various cultures during the Stone and Bronze Age, of Veneti and Germanic peoples during the Iron Age and, in the Middle Ages, Slavic tribes and Vikings.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] Starting in the 10th century, early Polish dukes on several occasions subdued parts of the region from the southeast, while the Holy Roman Empire and Denmark augmented their territory from the west and north.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14]

Contents

In the High Middle Ages, the area became Christian and was ruled by local dukes of the House of Pomerania (Griffins) and the Samborides, at various times vassals of Denmark, the Holy Roman Empire and Poland.[15][16][17] From the late 12th century, the Griffin Duchy of Pomerania stayed with the Holy Roman Empire and the Principality of Rugia with Denmark, while Denmark, Brandenburg, Poland and the Teutonic Knights struggled for control in Samboride Pomerelia.[17][18][19] The Teutonic Knights succeeded in integrating Pomerelia into their monastic state in the early 14th century. Meanwhile the Ostsiedlung started to turn Pomerania into a German-settled area; the remaining Wends, who became known as Slovincians and Kashubians, continued to settle within the rural East.[20][21] In 1325 the line of the princes of Rugia (Rügen) died out, and the principality was inherited by the Griffins,[22] themselves involved in the Brandenburg-Pomeranian conflict about superiority in their often internally divided duchy. In 1466, with the Teutonic Order's defeat, Pomerelia became subject to the Polish Crown as a part of Royal Prussia.[23] While the Duchy of Pomerania adopted the Protestant reformation in 1534,[24][25][26] Kashubia remained with the Roman Catholic Church. The Thirty Years' and subsequent wars severely ravaged and depopulated most of Pomerania.[27] With the extinction of the Griffin house during the same period, the Duchy of Pomerania was divided between the Swedish Empire and Brandenburg-Prussia in 1648.

Prussia gained the southern parts of Swedish Pomerania in 1720,[28] Pomerelia in 1772, and the remainder of Swedish Pomerania in 1815, when French occupation during the Napoleonic Wars was lifted.[29] The former Brandenburg-Prussian Pomerania and the former Swedish parts were reorganized into the Prussian Province of Pomerania,[30] while Pomerelia was made part of the Province of West Prussia. With Prussia, both provinces joined the newly constituted German Empire in 1871. Following the empire's defeat in World War I, Pomerelia was transformed into the Polish Corridor and the Free City of Danzig. Germany's Province of Pomerania was expanded in 1938 to include northern parts of the former Province of Posen–West Prussia, and in 1939 the annexed Polish Corridor became part of the wartime Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia. The Nazis deported the Pomeranian Jews to a reservation near Lublin[31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40] and, in Pomerelia, mass murdered Jews, Poles and Kashubians, planning to eventually exterminate Jews and Poles and Germanise the Kashubians.

After Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II, the German–Polish border was shifted west to the Oder–Neisse line and all of Pomerania was placed under Soviet military control.[41][42] The German population of the areas east of the line was expelled, and the area was resettled primarily with Poles (some themselves expellees from former eastern Poland) and some Ukrainians (resettled under Operation Vistula) and Jews.[43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51] Most of Western Pomerania (Vorpommern) remained in Germany and today forms the eastern part of the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, while the Polish part of the region is divided between West Pomeranian Voivodeship and Pomeranian Voivodeship, with their capitals in Szczecin (Stettin) and Gdańsk (Danzig), respectively. During the late 1980s, the Solidarnosc and Die Wende movements overthrew the Communist regimes implemented during the post-war era. Since then, Pomerania has been democratically governed.

Prehistory and antiquity

One of more than 1,000 megalith sites in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern - the Lancken-Granitz dolmen

After the glaciers of the Vistula Glacial Stage retreated from Pomerania during the Allerød oscillation,[1] a warming period that falls within the Early Stone Age, they left a tundra. First humans appeared, hunting reindeers in the summer.[52] A climate change in 8000 BC[53] allowed hunters and foragers of the Maglemosian culture,[1] and from 6000 BC of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture, to continuously inhabit the area.[54] These people became influenced by farmers of the Linear Pottery culture who settled in southern Pomerania.[54][55] The hunters of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture became farmers of the Funnelbeaker culture in 3000 BC.[54][56] The Havelland culture dominated in the Uckermark from 2500 to 2000 BC.[57] In 2400 BC, the Corded Ware culture reached Pomerania[57][58] and introduced the domestic horse.[58] Both Linear Pottery and Corded Ware culture have been associated with Indo-Europeans.[58] Except for Western Pomerania,[57] the Funnelbeaker culture was replaced by the Globular Amphora culture a thousand years later.[59]

During the Bronze Age, Western Pomerania was part of the Nordic Bronze Age cultures, while east of the Oder river the Lusatian culture dominated.[60] Throughout the Iron Age, the people of the western Pomeranian areas belonged to the Jastorf culture,[61][62] while the Lusatian culture of the East was succeeded by the Pomeranian culture,[61] then in 150 BC by the Oxhöft (Oksywie) culture, and at the beginning of the first millennium by the Willenberg (Wielbark) Culture.[61]

While the Jastorf culture is usually associated with Germanic peoples,[63] the ethnic category of the Lusatian culture and its successors is debated.[64] Veneti, Germanic peoples (Goths, Rugians, and Gepids) and possibly Slavs are assumed to have been the bearers of these cultures or parts thereof.[64]

Since the 3rd century, many settlements were abandoned,[65] marking the beginning of the migration period in Pomerania. It is assumed that Burgundians, Goths and Gepids with parts of the Rugians left Pomerania during that stage, while some Veneti, Vidivarii and other, Germanic groups remained,[66] and formed the Gustow, Debczyn and late Willenberg cultures, which existed in Pomerania until the 6th century.[65]

Timeline 10,000 BC–600 AD

Pomeranian culture - Pomerelian faced urns.

Early Middle Ages

A priest of Svantevit depicted on an stone from Arkona, now in the church of Altenkirchen.

The southward movement of Germanic tribes and Veneti during the migration period had left Pomerania largely depopulated by the 7th century.[68] Between 650 and 850 AD, West Slavic tribes settled in Pomerania.[69][70] These tribes were collectively known as "Pomeranians" between the Oder and Vistula rivers, or as "Veleti" (later "Liuticians") west of the Oder. A distinct tribe, the Rani, was based on the island of Rügen and the adjacted mainland.[6][71] In the 8th and 9th centuries, Slavic-Scandinavian emporia were set up along the coastline as powerful centers of craft and trade.[72]

In 936, the Holy Roman Empire set up the Billung and Northern marches in Western Pomerania, divided by the Peene river. The Liutician federation in an uprising of 983 managed to regain independence, but broke apart in the course of the 11th century due to internal conflicts.[8][73] Meanwhile, Polish Piasts managed to acquire parts of eastern Pomerania during the late 960s, where the short-lived Diocese of Kołobrzeg (Kolberg) was installed in 1000 AD. The Pomeranians regained independence during the Pomeranian uprising of 1005.[9][11][12][13][14][74][75][76][77][78]

During the first half of the 11th century, the Liuticians participated in the Holy Roman Empire's wars against Piast Poland.[79] The alliance broke off when Poland was defeated,[80] and the Liutician federation broke apart in 1057 during a civil war.[81] The Liutician capital was destroyed by the Germans in 1068/69,[82] making way for the subsequent eastward expansion of their western neighbor, the Obodrite state. In 1093, the Luticians,[83] Pomeranians[83] and Rani[83] had to pay tribute to Obodrite prince Henry.[84]

Timeline 600–1100

Stone ships at the site of an early medieval Scandinavian settlement, Altes Lager Menzlin near Anklam.

High Middle Ages

Cathedral, Kammin (Cammin, Kamien Pomorski), see of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kammin, set up in 1140 in Wollin (Wolin)

The early 12th century Obodrite, Polish, Saxon, and Danish conquests resulted in vassalage and Christianization of the formerly pagan and independent Pomeranian tribes.[15][90][91][92] Local dynasties ruled the Principality of Rügen (House of Wizlaw), the Duchy of Pomerania (House of Pomerania, "Griffins"), the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp (Ratiboride branch of the Griffins), and the duchies in Pomerelia (Samborides).[90]

The dukes of Pomerania expanded their realm into Circipania and Uckermark to the Southwest, and competed with the Margraviate of Brandenburg for territory and formal overlordship over their duchies. Pomerania-Demmin lost most of her territory and was integrated into Pomerania-Stettin in the mid-13th century. When the Ratiborides died out in 1223, competition arose for the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp,[93] which changed hands numerous times.

Throughout the High Middle Ages, a large influx of German settlers and the introduction of German law, custom, and Low German language turned the area into a German one (Ostsiedlung). The Wends, who during the Early Middle Ages had belonged to the Slavic Rani, Lutician and Pomeranian tribes, were assimilated by the German Pomeranians. The Kashubians however, descendants of Slavic Pomeranians, dominated many rural areas in Pomerelia. Most of the present-day towns were founded during the Ostsiedlung.[94]

The conversion of Pomerania to Christianity was achieved primarily by the missionary efforts of Absalon and Otto von Bamberg, by the foundation of numerous monasteries, and by the assimilatory power of the Christian settlers. A Pomeranian diocese was set up in Wolin, the see was later moved to Cammin.

Timeline 1100–1300

Eldena Abbey, a favourite motive of Caspar David Friedrich. Medieval Pomeranian monasteries, owners of vast areas, ensured the conversion of Pomerania and contributed to Ostsiedlung.
Stralsund, one of several Hanseatic cities in Pomerania. Brick Gothic was the typical medieval architecture that still can be seen all around the region.

Late Middle Ages

The Duchy of Pomerania (yellow) in 1400, P.-Stettin and P.-Wolgast are indicated; purple: Diocese of Cammin (BM. Cammin) and the Teutonic Order state; orange: Margraviate of Brandenburg; pink: duchies of Mecklenburg

The towns of the Hanseatic League were acting as quasi autonomous political and military entities.[115][116] The Duchy of Pomerania gained the Principality of Rugia after two wars with Mecklenburg,[22] the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp[117] and the Lauenburg and Bütow Land.[23] Pomerelia was integrated into the Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights after the Teutonic takeover of Danzig in 1308, and became a part of Royal Prussia in 1466.

The Duchy of Pomerania was internally fragmented into Pomerania-Wolgast, -Stettin, -Barth, and -Stolp.[118][119] The dukes were in continuous warfare with the Margraviate of Brandenburg due to Uckermark and Neumark border disputes and disputes over formal overlordship of Pomerania.[120] In 1478, the duchy was reunited under the rule of Bogislaw X, when most of the other dukes had died of the plague.[121][122]

Timeline 1300–1500

Castle of the Pomeranian dukes in Stettin (Szczecin). While this is a reconstruction of the late medieval castle, a burgh had been on this site already in the Early Middle Ages.
University of Greifswald, founded in 1456

Early Modern Age

Pomerelia as a part of Royal Prussia (light blue), 16th century; Duchy of Pomerania in brown
The former Duchy of Pomerania (center) partitioned between the Swedish Empire and Brandenburg after the Treaty of Stettin in 1653. Swedish Pomerania (West Pomerania) is indicated in blue, Brandenburgian Pomerania (East Pomerania) is shown in orange.

Throughout this time, Pomerelia was within Royal Prussia, a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with considerable autonomy. In the late 18th century, it became a part of Prussia.

The Duchy of Pomerania was fragmented into Pomerania-Stettin (Farther Pomerania) and Pomerania-Wolgast (Western Pomerania) in 1532,[17][24] underwent Protestant Reformation in 1534,[25][26][137] and was even further fragmented in 1569.[138] In 1627, the Thirty Years' War reached the duchy.[139] Since the Treaty of Stettin (1630), it was under Swedish control.[139][140] Inmidst the war, the last duke Bogislaw XIV died without an issue. Garrison, plunder, numerous battles, famine and diseases left two thirds of the population dead and most of the country ravaged.[141][142] In the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, the Swedish Empire and Brandenburg-Prussia agreed on a partition of the duchy, which came into effect after the Treaty of Stettin (1653). Western Pomerania became Swedish Pomerania, a Swedish dominion, while Farther Pomerania became a Brandenburg-Prussian province.

A series of wars affected Pomerania in the following centuries. As a consequence, most of the formerly free peasants became serfs of the nobles.[143] Brandenburg-Prussia was able to integrate southern Swedish Pomerania into her Pomeranian province during the Great Northern War, which was confirmed in the Treaty of Stockholm in 1720.[28] In the 18th century, Prussia rebuild and colonised her war-torn Pomeranian province.[144]

Timeline 1500–1806

Gustavus II Adolphus started the Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War from Pomerania, parts of which would remain Swedish until 1815. This and subsequent wars severely ravaged the region, two thirds of the population died during the Thirty Years' War alone.[145]
Invasion of the of Swedish Rügen by Brandenburg-Prussia, 1678

Modern Age

Map of the Prussian province Pomerania (Pommern) in 1905
Map of West Prussia and the Bay of Danzig in 1896

From the Napoleonic Wars to World War I, Pomerania was administered by the Kingdom of Prussia as the Province of Pomerania (Western and Farther Pomerania) and West Prussia (Pomerelia).

The Province of Pomerania was created from the Province of Pomerania (1653–1815) (Farther Pomerania and southern Vorpommern) and Swedish Pomerania (northern Vorpommern), and the districts of Schivelbein and Dramburg, formerly belonging to the Neumark.[30] While in the Kingdom of Prussia, the province was heavily influenced by the reforms of Karl August von Hardenberg[151] and Otto von Bismarck.[152] The industrial revolution had an impact primarily on the Stettin area and the infrastructure, while most of the province retained a rural and agricultural character.[153] Since 1850, the net migration rate was negative, Pomeranians emigrated primarily to Berlin, the West German industrial regions and oversees.[154]

After the First World War, the Polish Corridor of the Second Polish Republic was established from the bulk of West Prussia, causing an exodus of the German population.[155] Poland build a large Baltic port at the site of the former village Gdynia (Gdingen). The Danzig (Gdansk) area became the city state Free City of Danzig.

In the Province of Pomerania, that after the Kaiser's abdication was part of the Free State of Prussia within the Weimar Republic, democracy and the women's right to vote were introduced.[156] The economic situation worsened due to the consequences of World War I and worldwide recession.[157] As in the Kingdom of Prussia before, Pomerania was a stronghold of the conservatives also in the Weimar Republic.[158]

Timeline 1806–1933

Narrow gauge railways like "Rügensche Kleinbahn", operating since 1895, were built in all of Pomerania during the late 19th century.[159]
Since the late 19th century, the Pomeranian coast is a tourist resort. In Binz, tourism started in the 1860s.
Gdynia (Gdingen), a major port city constructed in 1921 as Poland's harbour within the Polish Corridor.

Nazi era

In 1933, the Province of Pomerania like all of Germany came under control of the Nazi regime. During the following years, the Nazis led by Gauleiter Franz Schwede-Coburg manifested their power by Gleichschaltung and repression of their opponents.[169] Pomerelia then formed the Polish Corridor of the Second Polish Republic. Concerning Pomerania, Nazi diplomacy aimed at incorporation of the Free City of Danzig and a transit route through the corridor, which was rejected by the Polish government.[170]

In 1939, the German Wehrmacht invaded Poland. Inhabitants of the region from all ethnic backgrounds were subject to numerous atrocities, of which the most affected were Polish and Jewish civilians.[171][172][173] Pomerelia was made part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia. The Nazi's set up concentration camps, deported the Jews, and systematically killed people (primarily Jews and ethnic Poles) they regarded Untermensch.

Timeline 1933–1945

Stutthof concentration camp, former Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia. Site of the killing of 85,000 people.
World War II devastated Kolberg (Kolobrzeg), like most of Pomerania

Communist era and recent history

Historical Province of Pomerania (yellow) superimposed on modern Germany (red) and Poland (blue)

In 1945, Pomerania was taken by the Red Army during the East Pomeranian Offensive and the Battle of Berlin, that went along with atrocities against the German civilians.[175] After the post-war border changes, the German population that had not yet fled was expelled from what in Poland was propagated[176] to be recovered territory.[177][177][178][179][180] The area east of the Oder and the Szczecin (former Stettin) area was resettled primarily with Poles, and much of the German cultural heritage was removed.[181][182] Most of Western Pomerania stayed with Germany and was merged into Mecklenburg.

With the consolidation of Communism in East Germany and Poland, Pomerania was part of the Eastern Bloc. In the 1980s, the Solidarnosc movement in Gdansk (Danzig) and the Wende movement in East Germany forced the Communists out of power and led to the establishment of democracy in both the Polish and German part of Pomerania.

Timeline 1945–present

1980 strike at Gdańsk Shipyard, birthplace of Solidarnosc. This marked the beginning of the collapse of Communist rule in Pomerania.

See also

Sources

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 RGA 25 (2004), p.422
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 From the First Humans to the Mesolithic Hunters in the Northern German Lowlands, Current Results and Trends - THOMAS TERBERGER. From: Across the western Baltic, edited by: Keld Møller Hansen & Kristoffer Buck Pedersen, 2006, ISBN 87-983097-5-7, Sydsjællands Museums Publikationer Vol. 1 [1]
  3. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.18ff 6
  4. ↑ Horst Wernicke, Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt, Helms, 2000, pp.16ff, ISBN 3-931185-56-7
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 A. W. R. Whittle, Europe in the Neolithic: The Creation of New Worlds, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p.198, ISBN 0-521-44920-0
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Buchholz (1999), pp.22,23
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Herrmann (1985), pp.237ff,244ff
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Herrmann (1985), pp.261,345ff
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Piskorski (1999), p.32 :pagan reaction of 1005
  10. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.25: pagan uprising that also ended the Polish suzerainty in 1005
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 A. P. Vlasto, Entry of Slavs Christendom, CUP Archive, 1970, p.129, ISBN 0-521-07459-2: abandoned 1004 - 1005 in face of violent opposition
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Nora Berend, Christianization and the Rise of Christian Monarchy: Scandinavia, Central Europe and Rus' C. 900-1200, Cambridge University Press, 2007, p.293, ISBN 0-521-87616-8, 9780521876162
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 David Warner, Ottonian Germany: The Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg, Manchester University Press, 2001, p.358, ISBN 0-7190-4926-1, 9780719049262
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Michael Borgolte, Benjamin Scheller, Polen und Deutschland vor 1000 Jahren: Die Berliner Tagung über den "Akt von Gnesen", Akademie Verlag, 2002, p.282, ISBN 3-05-003749-0, 9783050037493
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Addison (2003), pp.57ff
  16. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.35ff
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 Theologische Realenzyklopädie (1997), pp.40ff
  18. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.34ff,87,103
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Piskorski (1999), p.43
  20. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.77ff
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Buchholz (1999), pp.45ff
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Buchholz (1999), pp. 115,116
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Buchholz (1999), p. 186
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Buchholz (1999), pp.205–212
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Richard du Moulin Eckart, Geschichte der deutschen Universitäten, Georg Olms Verlag, 1976, pp.111,112, ISBN 3-487-06078-7
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Theologische Realenzyklopädie (1997), pp.43ff
  27. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.263,332,341–343,352–354
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 Buchholz (1999), pp.341-343
  29. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.363,364
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Buchholz (1999), p.366
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Lucie Adelsberger, Arthur Joseph Slavin, Susan H. Ray, Deborah E. Lipstadt, Auschwitz: A Doctor's Story, Northeastern University Press, 1995, ISBN 1-55553-233-0, p.138: February 12/13, 1940
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Isaiah Trunk, Jacob Robinson, Judenrat: The Jewish Councils in Eastern Europe Under Nazi Occupation, U of Nebraska Press, 1996, ISBN 0-8032-9428-X, p.133: February 14, 1940; unheated wagons, elderly and sick suffered most, inhumane treatment
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Leni Yahil, Ina Friedman, Haya Galai, The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry, 1932-1945, Oxford University Press US, 1991, ISBN 0-19-504523-8, p.138: February 12/13, 1940, 1,300 Jews of all sexes and ages, extreme cruelty, no food allowed to be taken along, cold, some died during deportation, cold and snow during resettlement, 230 dead by March 12, Lublin reservation chosen in winter, 30,000 Germans resettled before to make room [2]
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Martin Gilbert, Eilert Herms, Alexandra Riebe, Geistliche als Retter - auch eine Lehre aus dem Holocaust: Auch eine Lehre aus dem Holocaust, Mohr Siebeck, 2003, ISBN 3-16-148229-8, pp.14 (English) and 15 (German): February 15, 1940, 1000 Jews deported
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Jean-Claude Favez, John Fletcher, Beryl Fletcher, The Red Cross and the Holocaust, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-41587-X, p.33: February 12/13, 1,100 Jews deported, 300 died en route [3]
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Yad Vashem Studies, Yad ṿa-shem, rashut ha-zikaron la-Shoʼah ṿela-gevurah, Yad Vashem Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, 1996 Notizen: v.12, p.69: 1,200 deported, 250 died during deportation
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Nathan Stoltzfus, Resistance of the Heart: Intermarriage and the Rosenstrasse Protest in Nazi Germany, Rutgers University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8135-2909-3, p.130: February 11/12 from Stettin, soon thereafter from Schneidemühl, total of 1,260 Jews deported, among the deportees were intermarried non-Jewish women who had refused to divorce, eager Nazi Gauleiter Schwede-Coburg was the first to have his Gau "judenfrei", Eichmann's "RSHA" (Reich Security Main Office) ensured this was an isolated local incident to worried Eppstein of the Central Organization of Jews in Germany (Reichsvereinigung der Juden in Deutschland)
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 John Mendelsohn, Legalizing the Holocaust, the Later Phase, 1939-1943, Garland Pub., 1982, ISBN 0-8240-4876-8, p.131: Stettin Jews' houses were sealed, belongings liquidated, funds to be held in blocked accounts
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Buchholz (1999) , p.506: Only very few [of the Pomeranian Jews] survived the Nazi era. p.510: Nearly all Jews from Stettin and all the province, about a thousand
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Alicia Nitecki, Jack Terry, Jakub's World: A Boy's Story of Loss and Survival in the Holocaust, SUNY Press, 2005, ISBN 0-7914-6407-5, pp.13ff: Stettin Jews to Belzyce in Lublin area, reservation purpose decline of Jews, terror command of Kurt Engels, shocking insights in life circumstances
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Buchholz (1999), pp.512-515
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Piskorski (1999), pp.373ff
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Piskorski (1999), pp.381ff
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Tomasz Kamusella in Prauser and Reeds (eds), The Expulsion of the German communities from Eastern Europe, p.28, EUI HEC 2004/1 [4]
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Philipp Ther, Ana Siljak, Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944-1948, 2001, p.114, ISBN 0-7425-1094-8, 9780742510944
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Gregor Thum, Die fremde Stadt. Breslau nach 1945", 2006, pp.363, ISBN 3-570-55017-6, 9783570550175
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Buchholz (1999), p.515
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Dierk Hoffmann, Michael Schwartz, Geglückte Integration?, p142
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Karl Cordell, Andrzej Antoszewski, Poland and the European Union, 2000, p.168, ISBN 0-415-23885-4
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Piskorski (1999), p.406
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Selwyn Ilan Troen, Benjamin Pinkus, Merkaz le-moreshet Ben-Guryon, Organizing Rescue: National Jewish Solidarity in the Modern Period, pp.283-284, 1992, ISBN 0-7146-3413-1, 9780714634135
  52. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.16,17
  53. ↑ Piskorski (1999), p.17
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 54.4 54.5 Horst Wernicke, Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt, Helms, 2000, p.16, ISBN 3-931185-56-7
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Piskorski (1999), pp.18,19 6
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Piskorski (1999), p.19 6
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 57.4 57.5 Horst Wernicke, Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt, Helms, 2000, pp.16,17, ISBN 3-931185-56-7
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 Piskorski (1999), pp.19,20 6
  59. ↑ Piskorski (1999), p.19
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Piskorski (1999), pp.20,21 6
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 61.4 61.5 Piskorski (1999), p.23 6
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Horst Wernicke, Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt, Helms, 2000, pp.18,19, ISBN 3-931185-56-7
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Horst Wernicke, Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt, Helms, 2000, p.19, ISBN 3-931185-56-7
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Piskorski (1999), pp.21ff 6
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 RGA 23 (2003), p.281
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 RGA 23 (2003), p.282
  67. ↑ Horst Wernicke, Greifswald, Geschichte der Stadt, Helms, 2000, p.18, ISBN 3-931185-56-7
  68. ↑ Piskorski (1999), p.26
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Harck&Lübke (2001), p.15
  70. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.29ff ISBN 839061848
  71. ↑ Piskorski (1999), p.30
  72. ↑ Harck&Lübke (2001), pp.15ff
  73. ↑ Harck&Lübke (2001), p.27
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Buchholz (1999), p.25 : pagan uprising that also ended the Polish suzerainty in 1005
  75. ↑ Jürgen Petersohn, Der südliche Ostseeraum im kirchlich-politischen Kräftespiel des Reichs, Polens und Dänemarks vom 10. bis 13. Jahrhundert: Mission, Kirchenorganisation, Kultpolitik, Böhlau, 1979, p.43, ISBN 3-412-04577-2: 1005/13
  76. ↑ Oskar Eggert, Geschichte Pommerns, Pommerscher Buchversand, 1974: 1005-1009
  77. ↑ Roderich Schmidt, Das historische Pommern: Personen, Orte, Ereignisse, Böhlau, 2007, p.101, ISBN 3-412-27805-X: 1005/13
  78. ↑ Michael Müller-Wille, Rom und Byzanz im Norden: Mission und Glaubenswechsel im Ostseeraum während des 8.-14. Jahrhunderts: internationale Fachkonferenz der deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Verbindung mit der Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz: Kiel, 18.-25. 9. 1994, 1997, p.105, ISBN 3-515-07498-8, 9783515074988
  79. ↑ Herrmann (1985), pp.356ff
  80. ↑ Herrmann (1985), p.359
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Herrmann (1985), p.365
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 Herrmann (1985), p.366
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 83.3 83.4 83.5 83.6 Herrmann (1985), p.379
  84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Herrmann (1985), p.367
  85. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.26ff
  86. ↑ Leyser, Karl. "Henry I and the Beginnings of the Saxon Empire." The English Historical Review, Vol. 83, No. 326. (Jan., 1968), pp 1–32.
  87. ↑ Piskorski (1999), p.32
  88. ↑ Michael Borgolte, Benjamin Scheller, Polen und Deutschland vor 1000 Jahren: Die Berliner Tagung über den "Akt von Gnesen", Akademie Verlag, 2002, ISBN 3-05-003749-0, 9783050037493
  89. ↑ Piskorski (1999), p.33
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Theologische Realenzyklopädie (1997), p.40
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Buchholz (1999), p.25
  92. ↑ Herrmann (1985), pp.384ff
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 93.2 Buchholz (1999), p.87
  94. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.43-48
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 Herrmann (1985), p.268
  96. ↑ Piskorski (1999), p.35
  97. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.40,41
  98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 Inachim (2008), p.17
  99. ↑ Addison (2003), pp.59ff
  100. ↑ William Palmer, A Compendioius Ecclesiastical History from the Earliest Period to the Present Time, Kessinger Publishing, 2005, pp.107ff, ISBN 1-4179-8323-X
  101. ↑ Herrmann (1985), pp.402ff
  102. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.36ff
  103. ↑ Herrmann (1985), p.381
  104. ↑ Herrmann (1985), pp.386
  105. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.41,42
  106. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.30,34
  107. ↑ Piskorski (1999), pp.43,44
  108. ↑ 108.0 108.1 Buchholz (1999), p.34
  109. ↑ Piskorski (1999), p.77
  110. ↑ Pommern History
  111. ↑ 111.0 111.1 111.2 111.3 Piskorski (1999), p.44
  112. ↑ 112.0 112.1 Buchholz (1999), pp.34,35
  113. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.89
  114. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.104-105
  115. ↑ Craig J. Calhoun, Joseph Gerteis, James Moody, Steven Pfaff, Indermohan Virk, Contemporary Sociological Theory, Blackwell Publishing, 2002, pp.157,158 ISBN 0-631-21350-3, 9780631213505
  116. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.128-154,178-180
  117. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp. 106
  118. ↑ Hartmut Boockmann, Die Anfänge der ständischen Vertretungen in Preussen und seinen Nachbarländern, Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 1992, pp.131,132, ISBN 3-486-55840-4
  119. ↑ 119.0 119.1 119.2 Buchholz (1999), pp.143,146,147
  120. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp. 160-166,180ff
  121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 121.2 Bogislaw X in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie
  122. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.189
  123. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.103
  124. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.105
  125. ↑ Phillip Pulsiano, Kirsten Wolf, Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 1993, p.265, ISBN 0-8240-4787-7
  126. ↑ Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001, p.265, ISBN 0-395-65237-5
  127. ↑ Angus MacKay, David Ditchburn, Atlas of Medieval Europe, Routledge, 1997, p.171, ISBN 0-415-01923-0
  128. ↑ 128.0 128.1 Hartmut Boockmann, Die Anfänge der ständischen Vertretungen in Preussen und seinen Nachbarländern, Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 1992, pp.132,133, ISBN 3-486-55840-4
  129. ↑ Piskorski (1999), p.97
  130. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.154-158
  131. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.154
  132. ↑ Richard du Moulin Eckart, Geschichte der deutschen Universitäten, Georg Olms Verlag, 1976, p.109, ISBN 3-487-06078-7
  133. ↑ Heitz (1995), pp.193,194
  134. ↑ Heitz (1995), p.195
  135. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.190
  136. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.181ff
  137. ↑ 137.0 137.1 137.2 137.3 Buchholz (1999), pp.205-212
  138. ↑ 138.0 138.1 Buchholz (1999), pp.207
  139. ↑ 139.0 139.1 139.2 139.3 Buchholz (1999), p.233
  140. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.235,236
  141. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.263
  142. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.332
  143. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.264ff
  144. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.332,347,354
  145. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.263,332
  146. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.235,236,263
  147. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.273ff,317ff
  148. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.318
  149. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.318,319
  150. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.352–354
  151. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.393ff
  152. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.420ff
  153. ↑ 153.0 153.1 Buchholz (1999), pp.412,413,464ff
  154. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.400ff
  155. ↑ Richard Blanke, Orphans of Versailles, p32ff, 1993
  156. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.472ff
  157. ↑ 157.0 157.1 Buchholz (1999), pp.443ff,481ff
  158. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.377ff,439ff,491ff
  159. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.464
  160. ↑ 160.0 160.1 160.2 160.3 160.4 160.5 160.6 Buchholz (1999), pp.363,364
  161. ↑ Asmus
  162. ↑ Ireneus Lakowski, Das behinderten-bildungswesen im Preussischen Osten: Ost-west-gefälle, Germanisierung und das Wirken des Pädagogen, LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, 2001, pp.25ff, ISBN 382585261
  163. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.413ff,447ff
  164. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.465
  165. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.420ff,453
  166. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.471
  167. ↑ 167.0 167.1 Buchholz (1999), p.472
  168. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.443ff,472ff
  169. ↑ 169.0 169.1 169.2 Buchholz (1999), pp.500ff,509ff ISBN 3-88680-272-8
  170. ↑ Joachim C. Fest, Hitler, Harcourt Trade, 2002, pp.575-577, ISBN 0-15-602754-2 [5]
  171. ↑ Max Kerner, Verband der Historiker und Historikerinnen Deutschlands, Eine Welt, eine Geschichte?: 43. Deutscher Historikertag in Aachen, 26. Bis 29. September 2000: Berichtsband, Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2000, p.226, ISBN 3-486-56614-8 [6]
  172. ↑ Bernhard Chiari, Jerzy Kochanowski, Germany Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt, Die polnische Heimatarmee: Geschichte und Mythos der Armia Krajowa seit dem zweiten Weltkrieg, Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2003, pp.59,60, ISBN 3-486-56715-2 [7]
  173. ↑ Detlef Brandes, Der Weg zur Vertreibung 1938-1945: Pläne und Entscheidungen zum"transfer" der Deutschen aus der Tschechoslowakei und aus Polen, Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag, 2005, p.62, ISBN 3-486-56731-4 [8]
  174. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.510
  175. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.511-515
  176. ↑ Tomasz Kamusella and Terry Sullivan in Karl Cordell, Ethnicity and Democratisation in the New Europe, 1999, p.169: "[the term "recovered territories" was] christened so by the Polish communist-cum-nationalist propaganda", ISBN 0-415-17312-4, 9780415173124
  177. ↑ 177.0 177.1 Geoffrey Hosking, George Schopflin, Myths and Nationhood, 1997, p.153, ISBN 0-415-91974-6, 9780415919746
  178. ↑ Joanna B. Michlic, Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present, 2006, pp.207-208, ISBN 0-8032-3240-3, 9780803232402
  179. ↑ Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, 2005, pp.381ff, ISBN 0-19-925340-4, 9780199253401
  180. ↑ Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols Against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of State Socialism in Poland, 1994, pp.64-65, ISBN 0-271-01084-3, 9780271010847
  181. ↑ Dan Diner, Raphael Gross, Yfaat Weiss, Jüdische Geschichte als allgemeine Geschichte, p.164
  182. ↑ Gregor Thum, Die fremde Stadt. Breslau nach 1945", 2006, p.344, ISBN 3-570-55017-6, 9783570550175
  183. ↑ Buchholz (1999), pp.515ff
  184. ↑ 184.0 184.1 Buchholz (1999), p.519
  185. ↑ Heinrich-Christian Kuhn, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Der Bürger im Staat, "Die Bundesländer", Heft 1/2, 1999
  186. ↑ Beatrice Vierneisel, Fremde im Land: Aspekte zur kulturellen Integration von Umsiedlern in Mecklenburg und Vorpommern 1945 bis 1953, 2006, p.13, ISBN 3-8309-1762-7, 9783830917625
  187. ↑ Buchholz (1999), p.521

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